History of Management

Without any doubt, the question of work, roles and skills of a manager gets a mixed response. Some believe that these features are the shared by managers all over the world, while others maintain that there are significant differences in management of different countries that have given rise to such a notion and a process as the intercultural management. Which one of the above-stated arguments has an element of truth and could they be both regarded as authentic?First of all it cannot be denied that the science of management has a long history and perhaps all modern mangers employ principles and theories that have been introduced earlier. To start with, it was the Industrial Revolution that established big business and created the need for professional leaders. Furthermore, years of military and church rule added management models and terminology that are widely used today. Let us only recall Max Weber’s bureaucratic theory or that of Frederic Taylor who is commonly regarded th e Father of Scientific Management and proposed some ways of increasing workers’ productivity.On the basis of his research at Bethlehem Steel Company (Pittsburgh) he drew conclusions that the job can be split into minute parts and its performance can be improved by timing performance of each part separately. Furthermore, he suggested rest periods of special interval and duration and a differential pay scale that can be found in the practice of today’s managers (1). The famous method of overlapping tasks during the period of working day in order to avoid workers becoming tired easily was offered by Henry Gantt and displayed in the form of his ‘the Gantt chart’.Though not all of the managers may know the name of inventor of this tenet, but, for sure, most of them are acquainted with its expression and benefits it can provide. Moreover, it was Gantt who stressed the significance of the leadership and management qualities and skills for creating successful indu strial organizations. The man who is dubbed as the Father of Modern Management is Henri Fayol, a French industrialist who developed a framework for studying management and wrote General and Industrial Management (1).He distinguished five functions of managers, such as: planning, organizing, commanding, coordinating, and controlling. As we see, all theorists and pioneers of management theory originated from various countries (England, France, United States, etc. ); however this did not impede the principles they have set out from becoming universal. Times are changing and so are doing the people but some essential things and useful hints are immortal and not subject to ageing. Let us take a closer look into the work of a manager disregard of the geographical location of his working place and language he speaks.Nobody would argue that the better we understand the management role; the better it will be performed and more qualitative services will be provided. Some people wrongly consid er managers to be emotionless and cold fish and claim something like: â€Å"managers see work as something that must be done or tolerated,† â€Å"management focuses attention on procedure,† and â€Å"management sees the world as relatively black and white† (2, 2005:25). Yet, from our point of view, such standpoint is biased and far from being impartial.One should keep in mind that managers are also humans but the best among them have that gift for organizing and feel themselves capable of being at the head of other people and controlling not only their work but their lives in a way. Nevertheless, the manager’s work is not restricted to the above-mentioned issues only. Putting it by words of Carter McNamara, MBA, PhD, leadership is just one of the numerous facets of management, â€Å"just one of the many assets a successful manager must possess† (3).Therefore, it would be easier to determine the aim of a manager, which can be expressed as maximizing the output of his company with the help of effective administrative measures. This brings us to the definition of management itself that for short can be rendered as â€Å"the process of attaining organizational goals in an effective and efficient manner through planning, organizing, controlling, and directing organizational resources† (2). Therefore, any manager must undertake the already mentioned above functions:? organizing ? planning ? commanding ? coordinating ? controlling Note, that leadership is covered by the single function of controlling. Planning comprises development of company strategies and goals. To put it differently, on this stage a manager has to define the direction of his business and some milestones to be taken into account. Moreover, planning involves also defining budget and plans of operation, i. e. methods of achieving previously fixed goals.In brief, on the phase of planning a manager proves to be a good forecaster capable of determining the far-r eaching objectives. The following function and stage is organizing, which means right people on the right working places. In other words, this function presupposes that a manager must objectively consider knowledge and skills of his employees and offer them jobs that are most appropriate. Remarkably that some theorists of management call this function as â€Å"staffing† but to our mind, this notion is an element of organizing.Admittedly that â€Å"given the high levels of discretion enjoyed by knowledge workers, managers' decisions over work distribution, content and resources become more critical for commitment and knowledge creation† (4, 2005:383-424). To sum up, organizing function covers establishing superior/subordinate relationships, as well as determining the scope of staff’s obligations and responsibilities. The ‘controlling’ function means checking that work is carried out in a proper way and funds are spent with regard to their purpose. Th e coordinating function covers training, team building, etc.and refers mainly to work with human resources, but not the production process. It should be added that effective managers should be good communicators and analysts. They should â€Å"have guts† to resist constant stress and be able to operate under unfavorable conditions. Furthermore, managers are responsible for friendly environment within a company, which engages problem-combating, settling conflicts, searching for best solutions, etc. What is more they should be assertive enough to bring forward their ideas and convince the opponents to give preference to their views.Still, that does not mean that all managers should be inborn leaders, whatever. Even more, as J. P. Kotter wrote in his 1991 â€Å"The Best of the Harvard Business Review† article, What Leaders Really Do: â€Å"Leadership is different from management, but not for the reason most people think. Leadership isn't mystical and mysterious. It has n othing to do with having charisma or other exotic personality traits. It's not the province of a chosen few. Nor is leadership necessarily better than management or a replacement for it.Rather, leadership and management are two distinctive and complementary activities. Both are necessary for success in an increasingly complex and volatile business environment† (5, 1991:26). However, in spite of the fact that there are some common features of manager work found in different countries and irrespective of borders, such as the key principles of management in a whole and functions of managers, it has been stated above that managers are the same people. Consequently, their cultural and personal peculiarities are reflected on their work.The former has even given rise to the completely new theory – intercultural management. The most significant factors that have enabled the emergence of this theory are the following: continuous globalization of economy and merge of businesses, establishment of joint ventures, foreign representative offices, etc. As a result, people started to pay more attention to the intercultural diversity of managing styles and traditions along with all-nation values and convictions. Should to go, when in Rome, do as the Romans do, but in order to comply with this rule one should know it.Notably, that in her article in the Financial Times by Elisabeth Marx titled ‘Shock of the alien can sink a merger', for example, it was mentioned that â€Å"Research on cross-border acquisitions has shown that differences in management style (particularly in attitudes towards risk) have a negative effect on company performance. Sadly, very few companies consider the softer, cultural factors of mergers, which may be a significant contributor to their subsequent failures. Far too few companies even begin to consider the effects on staff or the human implication of a merger†.Furthermore, the article goes on to manifest that â€Å"it is easy to end up in a situation where the whole is worth less than the sum of its two parts†. Hence, the reasonable solution here may consist in following the statement and credo: â€Å"Managers' first task is to conduct more extensive business analysis before taking the decision to merge. In addition to carrying out traditional financial and commercial due diligence, they should complete a thorough examination of the cultural compatibility of the parties involved† (6, 2005:2).The same can be applied to all spheres where business is conducted and companies in any country. Yert, the most frequent use of intercultural management tenet is observed within such association as, for instance, international markets, by merging with foreign companies, projects involving multi-cultural teams, international negotiations and so on, and so forth. Other supporting the intercultural management view theories are three well-known analyses of intercultural management by Edward Hall, Geert Hofs tede and Philippe d'Iribarne that illustrate the differences between American and French management styles (7).Citing Edward T. Hall, intercultural differences in communication are based on the context, on time and on space: â€Å"Understanding between people results from the combination of information and its context. Some cultures have a rich context (close links between people, high level of the unspoken/unsaid): these cultures are highly † implicit†; other cultures valuing communication only when it is very clear in itself are said to be † explicit † (7).This can be exemplified by the French dislike of clearing procedures or by their creativity and flexibility, American productivity and utilitarianism etc (8, 2003:1333-1349). To sum up, there are common features that can be found among managers all over the world. Managers employ experience of earlier generations as well as coin modern ones. Today, theorists of management clearly define functions and goa ls of managing work and scope of their responsibilities and obligations. However, on the other hand, it remains disputable wither work of a manager is the same in different countries.Quite to the contrary, the intercultural management theory declares that every nation has its own management style that should be taken into account when conducting international negotiations and making business with foreign countries. The majority of businessmen can no longer escape the necessity to purchase, sell or communicate and work with people from different cultures and thus with different traditions and convictions. And we are strongly sure that our future is multinational one! Bibliography 1. History of Management. Retrieved on December 21, 2005 from: http://ollie. dcccd.edu/mgmt1374/book_contents/1overview/management_history/mgmt_history. htm 2. MANAGERS; PERSONALITY; ENTERPRISES |AU| Welbourne, TM. ; Cavanaugh, M. A. ; Judge, T. A. |AD| U. S. A. ; Cornell University. Centre for Advanced Huma n Resource Studies, IRL School. Ithaca, NY 14653-3901 3. Leader or Manager? Which Are You? Which Should You Be? The Case for Being Well-Rounded by Dick Mooney. Bradford University Journal. Retrieved on December 21, 2005 from: http://www. amputee-coalition. org/communicator/vol3no2pg2. html 4. The difference a manager can make: organizational justice and knowledge worker commitment by Marc Thompson.International Journal of Human Resource Management, Volume 16, Number 3, March, 2005, pp. 383-404 5. The Best of the Harvard Business Review by J. P. Kotter, 1991. 6. Shock of the alien can sink a merger by Elisabeth Marx. Financial Times, 5 April 2001 7. French management style. Retrieved on December 21, 2005 from: http://www. understandfrance. org/France/Intercultural3. html 8. Comparing business ethics in Russia and the US by Rafik I. Beekun, Yvonne Stedham, Jeanne H. Yamamura, Jamal A. Barghouti. International Journal of Human Resource Management. Volume 14, Number 8 / December 2003

Ogden Nash Poem “Kindly Unhitch That Star, Buddy” Essay

All people in the world live their entire lives to become something greater than they actually are. The quest for success in life is never-ending and people are never satisfied with what they have. In the poem â€Å"Kindly Unhitch that Star, Buddy† Nash warns not to dream for a goal that cannot be attained, in other words people’s long and arduous journey through life is pointless and success is unattainable. Nash uses diction effectively in kindly unhitch that star to show how peoples quests for success differs in many ways. He uses the phrase â€Å"†¦ others seem to think they’ll get just as far by devoting their evenings to the stuffy of the difference between brunettance and blondance† (Nash 21) to show the superficial paths people take to become successful. The key words in this phrase are â€Å"brunnetance and blondance† (21), which are words made up by Nash to show that a person believes that by changing their hair colour to stand out more will help them achieve success. Nash uses well-organized diction when he writes: Which perhaps is just as well because if everybody was a success nobody could be contemptuous of anybody else and everybody would start in all over again trying to be a bigger success than everybody else so they would have somebody to be contemptuous of and so on forevermore (28-31) The word contemptuous is used twice in this phrase and it adds to the effect of the entire stanza. Contemptuous is a strong and effective word used to describe the feeling of successful people towards the average Joe, inferior or worthless. He uses this word to emphasize that if everyone was equal they would trying to become more successful which proves the idea that the journey through life will never be complete enough even if you end up being successful. In addition to the authors efficient use of diction he uses parallel structure to show the same ideas of methods on how to attain success in life. In line nine and ten are constructed parallel to lines twenty-two to line twenty-three the first idea, â€Å"Indeed, everybody wants to be a wow, /but not everybody knows exactly how.†(9-10) is parallel to the idea â€Å"In short,  the world is filled with people trying to achieve success, /and half of them think they’ll get it by saying No and half of them by/saying yes.†(22-23) these ideas both express the idea that all people want to be successful and nobody wants to be a failure but people have different views on how to go about achieving success. Another example of parallel structure within â€Å"Kindly Unhitch that Star, Buddy† is when Nash states â€Å"†¦ other people think they will be able to put in more time at Palm/ Beach and the Ritz.†(13-14) is related to â€Å"†¦ others seem to think they’ll get just as far by devoting their evenings to the stuffy of the difference between brunettance and blondance† (19-21). These two lines both compel the ideas of the shallow methods people will try to become successful in the world. In lines thirteen and fourteen the superficial idea of hanging around already famous people at the Ritz and Palm Beach will make you successful as well, similarly the idea in the other quote shows the idea that someone believes they will become more prosperous in life by simply changing their hair colour. The third literary device that is very evident in Ogden Nash’s â€Å"Kindly Unhitch that Star, Buddy† is irony. The entire poem is written in a very ironic fashion but this irony is most apparent very early in the poem when Nash writes â€Å"And in celestial circles all the run-of-the-mill angels would rather be/ archangels or at least cherubim and seraphim,† (5-6) This is ironic because angels are supposed to be higher beings without any superficial desires or wishes of successfulness. Nash uses this to show that angels should be satisfied with what they are and this can be compared to the lives of many people in the real world trying futilely to become successful. Another example of irony is used when Ogden Nash coins the phrase â€Å"Some people think they will eventually bear diamonds instead of rhinestones, / Only by everlasting keeping their noses to their ghrinestones,† (11-12). Nash modifies this phrase slightly by changing grindstones to ghrinestones to show that people want to bear diamonds in life but in the end all they will achieve is rhinestones, or failure. Nash uses irony effectively and efficiently throughout the entire poem but it is distinctively evident in lines thirteen to twenty one when Nash writes about the different methods of success people try: And other people think they will be able to put in more time at Beach and the Ritz By not paying to much attendance at the office but rather in being brilliant by starts and fits. Some people after a full days work sit up all night getting a college education by correspondence, While others seem to think they’ll get just as far by devoting their evenings to the study of the difference in temperament between brunetteance and blondance (13-21) In these nine lines Ogden Nash describes four different schemes that particular people have to become successful in life. He covers a lot of methods of achieving success such as hard work, eccentricity, and popularity to show that none of these pursuits will make you a successful person because in the end all your efforts to strive for success are in vain. Through diction, parallel structure and irony Nash demonstrates how an average Joe’s journey through life and his striving to become successful will most likely end in failure. The theme of the quest for success is futile in â€Å"Kindly Unhitch that Star, Buddy† is a good example of people’s obsession with success and the value of their life based on that success, people should be satisfied with their life and not trying to live up to something that is unachievable.

Journal Type Paper Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2500 words

Journal Type Paper - Essay Example This paper shall discuss wildlife-based tourism, its attractions, and its negative and positive impact on wildlife, on the patrons, and Mother Nature in general. It shall discuss how it has successfully drawn in a largely European, middle class and affluent group of tourists to both the benefit and the detriment of the wildlife. In recent years, African safaris have become a very attractive activity for many tourists, but never more so than for the European, middle-class, and affluent ones. Big-game hunting, which is part of the African safari experience, has attracted many middle and high-class tourists from the Western hemisphere. These affluent tourists are very much willing to spend large amounts of their money in order to have the opportunity to get away from their normally stressful lives. These tourists also seek the thrill of being immersed in wilderness adventures while being able to relax in a more natural environment. They seek these adventures in order to relieve their stress and anxiety; in some instances to experience the spiritual and profound (Newsome, 2005). The big-game hunting sport usually culminates in the awarding of trophies for the best hunter among the participants, but this achievement usually plays a secondary role to the natural adventure that they get to experience through wildl ife-based tourism. This form of wildlife-based tourism is only seen in countries and areas with strict and capable monitoring measures in place. This ensures that big-game hunting does not unnecessarily endanger ecological balance and is safe for tourists. And the most important benefit on the part of the government and the locals is that big profit is coming in from this wildlife-based tourism. â€Å"Returns to governments accrue from land leases and trophy fees, apart from the indirect economic benefits of tourism† (Roth & Merz, 1997). This income flow is very much

A Study of Performances Improvement on IT Project Management Workers Dissertation

A Study of Performances Improvement on IT Project Management Workers ..A Case Study of China's C Information Technologies Co - Dissertation Example Moreover, Maslow’s motivational theory is used in understanding the motivation for improved performance within C Information Technologies Ltd. More importantly, the evaluation and discussion of factors affecting the performance of individuals and the strategies used by companies to improve performance are analysed and discussed within the paper. Introduction and Background The human resource function of contemporary organizations has revealed an increased focus on performance management for IT employees. Wikina (2008, p. 19) explains that this is attributed to the increased competitiveness within various markets and the changes in work activities which emanate from the advancement of information and communication technology. Performance management involves employee evaluation within the IT department which acts as a guideline for the needs of employees for skills, knowledge and abilities that will allow them to improve their productivity and performance at the work place (Gheo rghe & Hack, 2007, p. 17). China is a very competitive and rapidly growing economy especially within the IT sector. In addition, companies operating in China have experienced tremendous changes in the recent past which are related to the changing business environment and the demand for IT expertise. It is because of these challenges that most organizations and companies within China have demonstrated an increased regard for performance improvement for IT staff through employee development and training. This paper presents a report on the investigation on performance improvement among IT project management workers within C Information Technologies Ltd. The Chinese company acts as a case study for this investigation which is aimed at achieving a deeper understanding of the process of performance management as it is applicable within this company. More specifically, the study will achieve an analysis and evaluation of the characteristics of the company’s IT staff such as skills and attitudes towards work. This analysis will be conjugated with a study on the various factors which affect the performance of the C Information Technologies Ltd.’s IT staff with a view of determining the need for improvement. Furthermore the paper explores past literature on the topic to analyse and discuss the factors affecting performance management and the best strategies of improving the performance of the IT project workers within the IT industry. More significantly though is the fact that this study applies scientific methodology approach in meeting the following research questions and objectives. Objectives of the Study 1. To explore upon the theoretical framework on incentives and motivation of IT project staff which contributes to improved performance 2. To find out the important factors which affect job performance of IT project staff 3. To determine the most effective techniques and strategies in performance management which will improve the performance of IT pr oject staff within C Information Technologies Ltd. Research Questions 1. What are the performance characteristics of IT project staff within C Information Technologies Ltd? 2. What theoretical framework describes the motivations and incentives behind the level of performance among the c C Information Tec

Poverty in Sierra Leo Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Poverty in Sierra Leo - Essay Example The destruction of the infrastructure and the decline of the economy led to impoverishing of various communities. Such poverty was evidenced by poor health and nutrition indicators. The economy of Sierra Leone has for a considerably long time been distinguished by high unemployment and inflation rates (Christiaensen et al, 2002). Majority of the unemployed youths are former combatants that have no stable source of income. Such unemployed youthful population remains a principal threat to national security and economic stability. In simpler terms; unemployed youths enhance insecurity and other social evils such as prostitution. This paper seeks to explain poverty in the context of Sierra Leone, a country that has been defined as the poorest country in the world for a considerably long time. Sierra Leone is a third world nation or banana republic in West Africa. It has a total population of just about six million people from different communities and a diversity of cultures. Considered one of the most financially weakest countries in the entire world, Sierra Leone is not expected to be self-sufficient anytime soon, thanks to the ten-year-old internal armed conflict (Fosu, 2009). The civil war that lasted from late nineteen ninety to mid two thousand and two was brought to a standstill by the joint effort of such African countries as Kenya and Nigeria. The African Union made a unanimous decision to intervene after the war proved to be endless and detrimental to the interests of the economy as a whole. Today, Sierra Leone is one of the countries gaining economic stability having indicated a 7% per annum growth rate. Sierra Leone has placed reliance on international donors and well-wishers for the reconstruction of the entire economy. Democratization and stabilization of the political climate are among the major concerns of the civilized members of the society. According to UN agencies, Sierra Leone is fast moving towards macroeconomic stability. This is to say that the third world country has invested a lot of time and resources in dealing with such macroeconomic variables such as unemployment, inflation, and population growth rate (Manson & Knight, 2009). Among the poorest people in Sierra Leone are the people rendered landless by the internal armed conflicts. Small-scale farmers and single mothers heading families constitute a great percentage of the poor rural population. People that were internally displaced by the civil war are destitute and own or access no resources. As such, they resort to such desperate measures as begging or working for little pay so as to support their survival. It is estimated that 75% of the people of Sierra Leone live below the poverty line, with 27% living in extreme abject poverty. This was according to a 2005 research, which established that fifty percent of the entire populace lives on slightly less than one US dollar per day. According to the records of the year 2005, 80% of the people living in the rural ar eas lived in extreme poverty. Similarly, the people of the eastern districts were hard hit by the civil strife and lived in extreme poverty (Manson & Knight, 2009). Internal displacement was a common phenomenon that was brought about by fear and lack of foresight.

Africa In Perspective Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Africa In Perspective - Essay Example Trevor-Roper stated that Africa had nothing that could be taught or learned in so far as history is concerned, but seemed to prophesy about Africa’s Future. Although George Hegel and Hugh Trevor-Roper viewed Africa with contempt and negative connotations, they did not understand the Africa’s story and its potential for the future. It is notable that Africa in the traditional days did not have much to offer in terms of development or movements. Not much was known about the continent to the extent that it was not considered as a force in the global sphere. Civilizations had not knocked Arica’s doors. While civilization swept most parts of Europe and the nations of America’s, Africa missed the opportunity to become part of the world system. Accessibility into the continent of Africa was not a possible issue, as the terrain and navigation methods at that time could not allow penetration into the heart of the continent. Consequently, global powers did not think that Africa deserved to be included in the civilization process to they extent that the continent was left to hang in the dark with few possibilities.To this extent, Hegel and Trevor-roper were right in noting that nothing could be understood, learned or recorded about history and that remains a fact. It is important to note that Hegel and Trevor did not take into consideration the challenges that faced the ‘dark’ continent in the traditional days.In the traditional days, Africa had a governance system that was manifested by the clan system.  

Ethical Dilemmas in Organizational Communication Essay

Ethical Dilemmas in Organizational Communication - Essay Example However, the ethical dilemmas profoundly and dramatically affect the brand image of the enterprises and corporations due to increased awareness concerning these social issues amongst the general population of the world (Garber, 2008). An individual may encounter the ethical dilemmas in personal lives as well as in the professional or the business world. As an example about the ethical dilemma, I am a newly appointed personal director in a large beverage distributor and screening of all the applications for promotions to management positions come under my job responsibilities and tasks. According to the standard process and policies of the organization, top three contenders, or the applicants comes under the selection for additional interviews with the management after completing the screening process (Zastrow &Â  Kirst-Ashman, 2009). ... The finest option that I would go for is accosting the president about the discriminatory stance. As being a firm believer and supporter of the concept of EEO that is Equal Employee Opportunity, I would make my best effort to convince and persuade the president for the selected female candidates that they are the best matches with the skills and capabilities in accordance to the provided job specifications. Moreover, the president should not have the bias and prejudice feature while considering the applicants and their proficiency and talent should be the emphasis and the highlighting point while interviewing or selecting. While looking at the other side of the continuum, to resolve this ethical dilemma, I should reopen the position with an anticipation to catch the attention of further qualified candidates as an alternative preference that would come under implementation. Since I am an employee whose principal duty and responsibility is to screen, shortlist and recruit the applicant s according to the exact and accurate specifications provided by either the departments or the top executives, which is the foremost and key cause to go for this option. Therefore, by reopening the position, I would look for the best candidates according to the precise requirements as provided. In another example situation of ethical dilemma, I have overheard a dialogue exchange that was under discussion between my manager and the manager of another department in which my best friend came under hiring and worked. The matter of subject was my friend in the conversation that they were having. The conversation made it noticeably obvious that manager of the other department was not satisfied and happy with the work of my friend. In addition, the manager did